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Dark Rift Epochl
Site of some of the oldest hominid fossils, The Great Rift Valley in East Africa refers to a massive land depression, formed approximately twenty million years ago when two parallel fault lines pulled apart. The rift stretches along East Africa from the Jordan River Valley in southwest Asia to Central Mozambique, and is of such scale that Rift Valley is clearly visible in photographs of earth taken from space.
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Kohala Mountain constitutes the northern end of the island. It is built largely of rocks of the Pololu volcanic series which are dominantly olivine basalt with a few thin intercalated beds of vitric basaltic ash. After the eruption of this series, Kohala Volcano was deeply eroded on the windward (northeastern) side, and a deep soil formed on its other slopes. Later, oligoclase andesite and trachyte lava flows, named the Hawi volcanic series, were erupted. They rest on soil at the top of the Pololu series, and lie in the valleys cut into the Pololu lavas on the windward slope. Both the Pololu and Hawi volcanics were erupted from three rift zones trending N. 35 W., S. 65 E., and S. 50 W. from the summit of the mountain. The rift zones are marked at the surface by rows or cinder cones, and beneath the surface by innumerable dikes. A caldera occupied the summit of the mountain at the beginning of the eruption of the Hawi lavas, and for a time confined the flows. It was gradually filled and the lava escaped northeastward into the large valleys. Some of the caldera faults can still be traced. A shallow graben indents the summit now.
South of Kohala Mountain lies the much larger volcano of Mauna Kea. The early rocks of Mauna Kea constitute the Hamakua volcanic series. The lower member of this series consists chiefly of olivine basalt flows with intercalated thin beds of vitric basaltic ash. The olivine basalt of the lower member changes gradationally into the upper member, in which basalt and olivine basalt arc still abundant, but andesite also is present. Lavas of the upper member interfinger with Hawi lavas of Kohala Mountain. The Hamakua volcanic series is mantled with Pahala ash 5 to 20 feet thick, above which lie the rocks of the Laupahoehoe volcanic series. Locally the two series are separated by erosional unconformity, The Laupahoehoe lavas are dominantly andesite. The andesites erupted after the last glacial epoch are mapped separately on plate 1. The Laupahoehoe volcanic series, and probably also the Hamakua volcanic series, were erupted principally from three rift zones, trending west, northeast and south-southeast from the summit of the mountain. The upper slopes are studded with many large cinder cones, lying principally along the rift zones. Late in its geologic history, Mauna Kea was capped by a small glacier, presumably contemporaneous with the Wisconsin stage of glaciation in North America, which left conspicuous terminal, lateral, and ground moraines. Deposits exposed in canyons on the southern slope, formerly believed to be of glacial origin, are now believed to be volcanic explosion breccias.
The Kau volcanic series and presumably also the Kahuku and Ninole volcanic series were erupted principally from vents along two rift zones which extend northeast and southwest from the summit caldera. The lavas of all three series are preponderantly olivine basalt. Many of the lavas contain small amounts of hypersthene.
The earliest exposed lavas and thin intercalated ash beds of Kilauea Volcano comprise the Hilina volcanic series. These are capped by the Pahala ash, which in turn, is overlain by the lavas and thin ash beds of the Puna volcanic series. The volcanics of both series were erupted along two rift zones, one extending southwestward from Kilauea Caldera, and the other extending southeastward for 5 miles and then bending sharply east by north. The lavas of both series are very largely olivine basalt. A few flows contain hypersthene. Augite phenocrysts are common in Mauna Loa lavas, but rare in those of Kilauea, indicating that crystallization has not progressed as far in the magma chamber of Kilauea Volcano as in that of Mauna Loa. Eruption of the Puna volcanic series has continued until the present time, the historic flows being separated from the prehistoric ones on plate 1. The historic eruptions and volcanic activity of Kilauea are briefly described.
In Kohala Mountain, much water is perched on ash beds in the Pololu volcanic series and on ash and soil at the base of the Hawi volcanic series. It escapes in perched springs in the big valleys and along the windward sea cliff and is recovered in tunnels. Along the windward slope of Mauna Keu, small amounts of water are perched by ash beds and dense lava flows in the Hamakua volcanic series. Small perched springs issue from these structures and water is recovered by tunnels. In the Kau District ash beds perch considerable water, which is recovered by many tunnels. On the southern slope of Mauna Kea small springs are perched by beds of hill wash.Dikes in the rift zones are relatively impermeable, but enclose masses of permeable rock. Water is confined at high level in the interdike compartments in Kohala Mountain, and probably in the other volcanoes. It escapes in high-level springs in the deep valleys on Kohala Mountain; some of it is recovered by tunnels.
drifting (signal) - refers to a signal with an apparent time rate ofchange in its typical frequency. All signals drift to some extent. Ina SETI system, the dominant drift should be largely the result ofonly the time rate of change in the Doppler shift (q.v.) 2ff7e9595c
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